Natural Science Seminar - Abstracts Fall 2007
Ryan Morra
Sept. 10, 2007
Factors
Contributing to
Invasibility: Enemy Release and Leaf Properties
Mentors:
Dr. Manuel T. Lerdau, University of Virginia and Dr. Mark Brenner
Abstract. Variation in
the degree of invasibility among exotic species is topic of great
interest in current ecological research. A prevailing hypothesis, the
enemy-release hypothesis (ERH) posits that species introduced into an
exotic region can proliferate due to liberation from predators found in
their native ranges. The ERH predicts that non-invasive exotics are
still under pressure by enemies in the introduced area, otherwise they
would also become invasive. Physiological factors unrelated to
geographic origin may also be driving predator preferences. The
objective of this study was to determine whether there was difference
in insect damage among native, invasive exotic, and non-invasive exotic
woody plant species. In addition, this study examined whether other
leaf properties could serve as predictors for insect damage,
particularly specific leaf area. Specific leaf area, the projected leaf
area per dry mass, is a standard measurement that is correlated to
nitrogen content and palatability. The State Arboretum of Virginia
presented a unique opportunity to carry out a robust and
phylogenetically-informed study of the ERH. Eighteen species from the
genera Acer, Euonymus, Lonicera, Quercus, and Viburnum were chosen for
comparison. Within each genus, there was at least one native,
non-invasive exotic, and invasive species represented by three
individuals in the study site. Four damage types (chewing,
skeletonizing, leaf mining, and galling) as well as overall damage were
scored on 60-90 sun-leaves from each individual over three sampling
periods from June to July 2007. The specific leaf area of ten sun
leaves from each individual was also measured. Native species ad
greater damage scores than both invasive and non-invasive exotics
(rANOVA p > 0.0001), with no significant difference between
invasives and non-invasives. There was a weak correlation between SLA
and overall damage (general linear model ANOVA p = 0.048, r2
= 0.1396). Chewing and skeletonizing damage was spread evenly among
individuals in each invasibility classification, whereas leaf mining
and galling were observed more frequently on native individuals than
invasive and non-invasive exotic species. The results suggest that
specific leaf area is most likely not a driving preference for
predators, and does serve as an effective proxy for overall damage.
Most importantly, there are strong data that indicate that release from
enemies alone is not sufficient to lead exotic species to become
invasive.
Alison E. Borrman
September 24, 2007
A quantitative
analysis of applied kinesiology nutrient proximity techniques
Mentor: Dr. Robert Eckstein
Abstract: In 1968 Dr. George
Goodheart, the founder of applied kinesiology (AK), introduced the use
of the technique for allergy diagnosis. The methods have spread
worldwide and are now easily accessed by lay people. Despite widespread
use, there is a lack of scientific research on the topic. The
objectives of this study were 1). To determine whether the proximity of
a food substance had an observable affect on muscle strength, and 2).
To determine whether the assessment of muscle strength by manual muscle
testing (MMT) correlated with measures derived by hand-held dynamometry
(HHD). Three substances, flour, sugar and a control, were
tested on twenty-four subjects. Each subject underwent a MMT of the
anterior deltoid and grip strength measurements using HHD, for each
substance. Objective strength change measurements were broken into not
weakened (NW) and weakened (W) subgroups according to subjective
assessments. T-tests of the control treatment subgroups were
significantly different (p = 0.01), while t-tests of the flour and
sugar treatments showed no significant difference between subgroups (p
= 0.22, p = 0.92 respectively). A comparison of objectively determined
strength change values shows no significant difference between the
three treatments (ANOVA p > 0.05). The results suggest a failure to
accept the alternative hypothesis and failure to reject the null. It is
possible that the treatments have no affect on muscle strength or that
the dynamometer is not reliable enough to measure strength changes
caused by the treatments.
Shannon Waldron
October 1, 2007
Water Soluble
Antioxidant Development During the Ripening Stages of
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon
lycopersicum)
Mentor: Dr. Victoria Collins
Abstract: Ethylene is hormone
emitted by fruits at levels of 1-2 ppm which
promotes ripening. Tomato production in the US takes advantage of
this role by harvesting green fruits and bringing the fruits quickly to
the red stage by exposure to ethylene at levels of 150 ppm. No
studies have been found which investigate the effects of these high
levels of ethylene on nutrient composition of the fruit.
Tomatoes are a good source of antioxidants which may offer many health
benefits, because antioxidants remove dangerous free radicals from
tissues. This study compared the hydrophilic antioxidant capacity
(AOC) of (1) fruits taken from the vine at the green,
orange, and red stages, and (2) red fruits ripened on the vine,
or indoors on a table, in a paper bag, or in a chamber with 120 ppm
ethylene.
One fruit was taken from each of 10 plants at each ripeness
stage. AOC of the diluted fruit juice was determined by
spectrophotometrically monitoring the quenching of the colored
diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. Among the
vine-ripened fruits, the AOC’s of green, orange, and red fruits were
19, 31, and 26 micromoles/serving, respectively. Green AOC
differed significantly (p<0.05) from orange and red, when ripened
off the vine, ethylene reduced ripening time. Ripening treatments
had a significant effect on the AOC of red
fruits. The vine ripened fruits tended to have
highest AOC. But vine ripening and table ripening did not differ.
Ethylene in paper bag or chamber significantly reduced AOC compared to
vine and table ripening, but AOC of chamber and paper bag treatments
did not differ significantly. These data may imply that ethylene
treatment reduces water soluble AOC.
Marc Weller
October 8, 2007
White tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Swannanoa
Valley
Mentor: Dr. Lou Weber
Abstract: The white
tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
is an important and widespread game species in North America, ranging
from southern Canada to Brazil, occupying a diverse array of habitat
types. Habitat destruction and overhunting led to the widespread
extermination of deer in most of the Eastern United States by the year
1900. Implementation and enforcement of game laws after the turn
of the century, as well as importation of deer from areas where they
survived, helped populations to rebound. My objective was to determine
why populations remain so low in the Swannanoa Valley. I placed
motion sensing game cameras in the woods, two on Jones Mountain and one
on the Cold Springs trail, to monitor wildlife. I also
distributed flyers in the Bull Creek area and on Warren Wilson campus
and collected sightings via email and phone reports. I received
reports from multiple residents and retrieved a picture of deer from
one of the cameras on Jones Mountain, showing that small numbers of
deer are present. The evidence indicates that deer are not
limited by humans, lack of a source population, or habitat and food
availability, but that nearby populations are not dispersing to the
area because they have no natural incentive to do so.
Joe Kennedy
October 15, 2007
Relationship of
Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta
caretta)
nesting approach to time, moon, and tidal sequence on South Island, SC
Abstract: Loggerhead sea
turtle nesting success has drastically decreased due to confounding
factors regarding deteriorating nesting habitat. The rise of
human disturbance in nesting habitats has increased risk of extinction
for Loggerheads due to excessive nest depredation from both introduced
and native species. In South Carolina, raccoon and ghost crab
depredation have been researched extensively which has helped create an
extensive loggerhead nesting protection program. However, within
the past 4 years, eastern coyote depredation has destroyed on average
35% of all nests on South Island in South Carolina.
The former protection program is insufficient in providing protection
from depredation from eastern coyotes. Due to their curious and
fast learning demeanor, coyotes can often pinpoint a potential nesting
Loggerhead before she begins to nest. Prior to the arrival of the
non-native eastern coyote, predation control occurred the morning
following nesting. Throughout the summer of 2006, S.C. Department
of Natural Resources permitted access that I may inventory and protect
incoming Loggerhead Sea Turtles throughout the evening until
morning. This provided constant attention for the incoming sea
turtles and decreased depredation nearly to zero. Throughout the
evening, I determined the arrival time of the nesting Loggerheads
within fifteen minutes. My objective was to determine if the
approximate arrival time had close relationships to time, tide, or moon
sequence. If a relationship could be found, a more realistic
regiment for depredation control could be created that would focus
technician survey time to the highest concentration of arrivals.
Due to the solitary nature of the internship, extended evening surveys
are both dangerous for the intern and expensive for the state.
There was no apparent patterns observable that related to the three
studied factors. As eastern coyotes increase their range, they
are likely to become a large factor in predation of Loggerhead eggs in
the southeast. Although this data does not infer any observable
relationships to help prevent this depredation, it opens a forum to
begin evaluating feasible options to prevent the serious impacts of the
eastern coyote.
Carol Sevin
October 29, 2007
Lentinan Content
in Shiitake (Lentinula edodes)
Mentor: Dr. Victoria Collins
Abstract: The most potent
medicinal compound of shiitake (Lentinula
edodes) is believed to be lentinan, a β-glucan. The
structure of lentinan causes indirect antitumor and antimicrobial
properties. The objectives of this study were to develop a method
for comparing the amount of lentinan in shiitake samples and to compare
lentinan content in shiitake grown at WWC and stored at different
temperatures. Ten grams of shiitake from each of seven logs were
stored at -70, -10, 4, 24 ºC for five days. Lentinan was
extracted from the fruit by successive cold and hot alkaline
extractions. Sirofluor forms a complex with lentinan which
fluoresces at 502nm when excited at 398nm. Fluorescence data were
collected using a fluorimeter (RF-10AXL Shimadzu). Increasing
storage temperatures significantly (p = 0.008) decreased
fluorescence. Relative fluorescences were 728, 639, 422, and 393
for -70, -10, 4, 24 ºC respectively. These results suggest that
the medicinally active compound in shiitake decreases as storage
temperature increases.
Emily S.
Paulsen
October 29, 2007
Plague (Yersinia pestis) in Black-tailed
Prairie Dog (Cynomys
ludovicianus)
Colonies of Prowers County, Colorado
Mentor: Dr. Lou Weber
Abstract: One of the most
problematic diseases affecting rodent species in the United States is
the plague, a bacterium whose vector is the common flea. The
Black-tailed Prairie Dog, a colonial rodent species inhabiting the
western U.S., harbors these infected fleas and, therefore, suffers
massive population losses yearly. In the state of Colorado,
surveillance efforts monitor plague interactions with this particular
rodent species and other wildlife species, but no extensive prairie dog
surveillance has occurred in one of the state’s eastern counties,
Prowers County. The objective of this study was to determine if
plague is present in Black-tailed Prairie Dog colonies of Prowers
County, Colorado. Fourteen different prairie dog colonies in the
county were located and surveyed for plague presence in June
2007. Visual plague assessments inside a mound included:
undisturbed mound soil, spider webbing inside each mound hole, and
blowflies caught in the webbing. Multiple mounds in one area of the
colony showing these visual signs could possibly infer plague
infection. Ten of the fourteen colonies were active and healthy
with no plague infections. Three colonies were entirely decimated from
plague infection. One colony had a mixture of plague-infected and
plague-free mounds. The results suggest that plague is present in
Black-tailed Prairie Dog colonies of Prowers County, although the three
visual mound assessments were not representative of the actual
infection statuses of each colony.
William
Franklin
November 5, 2007
Sleep Deprivation
and its Effects on Motor Skills
Mentor: Dr. Robert Eckstein
Abstract: Sleep can be
categorized into two different types; rapid eye movement (REM) and
non-REM sleep. These two types of sleep are based on both polygraphic
variables from an EEG, EOG, and EMG, and bodily fuctions during sleep.
Studies have shown that sleep deprivation has adverse effects of
cognitive functions, memory, and other daily tasks. The objective of
this study was to observe the effects of sleep deprivation on motor
skills tasks. Thirty-three subjects were gathered using convenience
sampling and asked to participate in four tasks. The tasks were the
Waldo task, reaction time task, logical reasoning task, and domino
task. The subjects’ results were divided up based on three different
criteria, which were average amount of sleep, whether or not a nap was
taken, and amount of sleep before the test. Subjects who had less
sleep the night before were significantly different from subjects with
high sleep for the Waldo task (p value 0.03). Subjects who had taken a
nap appeared to on average have done better on the Logical Reasoning
Task than subjects without naps, but the result was not significant (p
value of 0.07). Subjects whom on average had more sleep appeared to
have taken more time to find Waldo, but the result was not significant
(p value 0.06). Subjects whom on average had more sleep obtained better
scores on the reaction time test (p value 0.02). Subjects whom on
average had less sleep appeared to have scored better on the logical
reasoning task, but the result was not significant (p value 0.06). This
variation of results among subjects suggests that different people have
different capacities for sleep deprivation before their performance may
be affected.
Jenna
Schreiber
November 12, 2007
The Allelopathic
Effects of Butternut (Juglans
cinera) on
Non-Native Invasive Species
Mentor: Dr. Mark Brenner
Abstract: Non-native invasive
species are causing significant damage to native habitats all over the
globe and even here on the Warren Wilson campus. One potential control
for this problem is the reintroduction of native allelopathic plants.
Allelopathy is the ability for the chemicals that one-plant posses to
have an adverse effect on another plant (Hierro and Callaway, 2003).
The tree Butternut (Juglans cinera)
contains the allelochemical juglone in its roots and nuts. The
objective of this study is to determine if the restoration of the
native butternut has allelopathic effects on non-native invasive
species. Two treatments were made from the ground root of butternut (4g
ground butternut root/50g soil/75ml water and 8g ground butternut
root/50g soil/ 75ml water). A positive control treatment was made using
pure juglone (0.006g pure juglone/50g soil/75ml water). A negative
control treatment was made by adding nothing to the soil and still
moistening it with 75ml of water. Seedlings of the invasive species
Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima)
and Bicolor Lespedeza (Lespedeza
bicolor) were transplanted into the treatment pots after growing
in the greenhouse on the mister shelf for 28 days. After 14 days plants
were cut, dried and weighed. An ANOVA was used to compare the treatment
groups. A p-value of 0.3530 indicating no significant difference
between treatment groups was obtained for tree of heaven. A p-value of
0.0017 indicated a significant difference between the control treatment
and all other treatment groups for Lespedeza. Based on these
observations the presence of butternuts containing the allelochemical
juglone could reduce the vigor of the invasive plant lespedeza.
Leslie
Selgestad
Nov. 12, 2007
Fatty acid
analysis of venison from wild deer and farm-raised deer
Mentors: Dr. Victoria Collins and Dr. Mark Brenner
Abstract: Omega-6 and omega-3
are two types of polyunsaturated fatty acids that are very important to
our diet. Messenger compounds created by omega-6 increase
vasoconstriction, blood pressure and blood viscosity while messenger
compounds created by omega-3 decrease vasoconstriction, blood pressure
and blood viscosity. Eating red meat is one way to obtain these
essential fatty acids, and studies have shown grass-fed beef to have
higher omega-3 levels than grain-fed beef. Red meat in the form
of wild game meat is becoming more and more popular in the U.S. and
many farms are now raising deer to be commercially processed for the
consumer. The objective of this study was to measure the omega-6
: omega-3 fatty acid ratios in wild white-tailed deer and farmed
white-tailed deer, and then to compare omega-6 : omega-3 fatty acid
ratios in wild deer from different regions of the country. Wild
deer samples were collected from various areas of the U.S. – 2 from WI,
2 from IL, 3 from NC and 1 each from SC and MD (n=9). Two farmed
deer samples were collected from 1 farm in SE MN (n=2). Two
subsamples were prepared from each sample and then run through a gas
chromatograph/mass spectrophotometer to separate and quantify the
individual fatty acids. Average omega-6 : omega-3 ratios were
then calculated for each sample. The two farmed deer samples had ratios
of 2.47 :1 and 2.97 :1 omega-6 :omega-3, respectively. The wild
deer samples from IL had the highest ratios of 3.87 :1 and 3.50 :1,
respectively and one wild deer sample from SC had the lowest ratio of
1.68 :1 omega-6 :omega-3.
Bill Pence
Nov. 19, 2007
Lead Analysis of
Black Rat Snake (Elaphe obsoleta) Scales
Mentors: Dr. Dean Kahl and Dr. Lou Weber
Abstract: The shed skins of snakes can serve as useful pollution
monitoring tissues. One heavy metal that is of special
environmental concern, lead (Pb), can be detected in these reptilian
tissues. The snake species that was used in this study was the
Black Rat Snake (Elaphe obsoleta).
The objectives of this study were to develop an analytical method to
detect lead in shed snake tissue and to conduct a lead contamination
assessment of three areas of interest to see if lead contamination is
present. Skins were obtained from the Lakeside Nature Center in
Kansas City, KS; the Western North Carolina Nature Center in Asheville,
NC; and Warren Wilson College in Asheville, NC. For each
location, three shed skins (n=3) were obtained, giving a total of nine
samples (n=9). For each skin, approximately one gram was rinsed
with acetone/water and digested in 40. ml of 70% nitric acid and was
allowed to sit overnight. The samples were evaporated to dryness
and diluted with 12. ml of 2% nitric acid and 5. ml of 30% hydrogen
peroxide. The clear samples were heated and transferred to
centrifuge tubes with each tube containing 10. ml of sample. The
samples were analyzed using an ion-coupled plasma (ICP)
spectrophotometer at Western Carolina University. Lead was
detectable in each sample; Lakeside Nature Center (130, 150, 380 ppb);
Western North Carolina Nature Center (90, 440, 210 ppb); Warren Wilson
College (6,400, 210, 490 ppb). The outlier in this study was WWC
1 (6,400 ppb), which came from the Facilities Management and Technical
Services (FMTS) at Warren Wilson College and indicates possible lead
contamination near the collection site. Statistical analysis was
not performed for this study because of the small sample size and
because the lead concentration values did not show normal
distribution. The results suggest that lead can be detected in
these tissues using this method. The lead concentration range in
this study (90 – 490 ppb) fell within the lead concentration range from
one study in Virginia in 2005 (54 – 783 ppb) and was in close proximity
with another study from Punjab, India in 1988 (180 – 220 ppb), which
suggests elevated lead levels in the three areas.
Amy Witt
November 19, 2007
Impacts of Traffic
Noise on Perameles nasuta, Isoodon macrousus, and Hypsiprymnodon moschatus at the Cooper Creek
catchment, Queensland, Australia
Mentors: Peter Byrnes, Dr. Robert Eckstein
Abstract: The construction and
maintenance of roads, linear clearings, cause many abiotic and biotic
impacts. Traffic noise is one possible cause or factor of the
linear barrier effect and avoidance roads cause to species.
Studies on traffic noise have been limited to birds and
amphibians. Little research has been performed to determine the
impact of roads on Perameles nasuta,
Isoodon macrousus, and Hypsiprymnodon
moschatus, and no research has been performed to determine the
importance of traffic noise as a cause of the linear barrier effects
roads cause. The purpose of the study was to determine if traffic
noise caused a linear barrier to or road avoidance by P.nasuta, I.macrousus, and H.moschatus. The movements of
each species (mean angles and frequencies or road crossings) were
determined for the two treatment types, control (c.t.) and traffic
noise (t.n.t), through a spool-and-line technique. The experiment
found that the presence of traffic noise did not create a great linear
barrier to P.nasuta (c.t.=25%
and t.n.t.=67%), H.moschatus
(c.t.=25% and t.n.t.=100%), or I.macrousus
(c.t.=41% and t.n.t.=0%), but rather the traffic noise possibly
attracted H.moschatus and P.nasuta. Traffic noise did
not cause significant avoidance of the pseudo-road to or greatly alter
the movements of P.nasuta
(p=0.9909) or I.macrousus
(p=0.1697), but traffic noise did cause a significant alteration of the
movements of H.moschatus
(p=0.0399) towards the pseudo-road. Traffic noise may act as a
component of a synergistic effect roads have on animals causing the
avoidance of roads or inhibition or road crossing.
Christine
Hulburt
November 26, 2007
Ant visitation to
extrafloral nectaries of Common Vetch (Vicia sativa) and
the effect
on fecundity and foliar damage.
Mentor: Dr. Amy Boyd
Abstract:
Extrafloral
nectaries (EFN) are secretion sites located on the stipules of common
vetch (Vicia sativa). They
secrete a sugar solution to attract ants and other
insects. This interaction has been
called facultative mutualistic relationship.
In some studies the ants eat the sugar solution and in return
they
provide protection to the vetch plants by deterring herbivores. The
presence of
EFN has also been shown to affect the seed set a plant produces. The
purpose of
the project was to determine if the type (size) of ant present on the
plant had
an effect on the amount of herbivore damage and the amount of seeds
produced by
each plant. The experiment involved a
total of 22 plant samples at various locations on the WWC campus. Each
sample
contained two plants on which I could perform specific treatments. The nectaries were removed from one plant
(A) and left intact for the other plant (B) as a control.
A student blind to my methods observed the
amount of damage on each vetch plant.
Seeds were collected from each plant at the termination of the
observation period. I used a
non-parametric sign test to compare the difference between the amount
of damage
to the plants. There was no difference
in the amount of damage on the plants with removed nectaries and the
plants
whose nectaries remained intact. I used
a paired t-test to compare the amount of seeds produced per pod per
plant to
the size of the ant. The result was a p-value of 0.124, indicating that
there was
no significant difference between the size of the ants and the amount
of seed
produced. I used a paired t-test to
compare the mean number of seeds per pod per plant to the treatment of
each
plant group (removed nectaries compared to intact nectaries). This resulted in a p-value of 0.456 indicating
that there was no difference between the treatments and the plants set
seed. These results may be because of
environmental issues like a late freeze weakening the plants, a lack of
rain,
and a low level of vetch herbivores in this area. Such environmental
factors
also make no difference as to what kind of ant is accessing the nectar
that the
vetch plants are secreting.
Matt Turino
11/26/2007
Levels of Coliform
Bacteria in Cafeteria Waste Compost at Warren Wilson College
Mentor: Dr. Jeff Holmes
Abstract: Compost is a common
method for recycling nutrients while eliminating pathogens, weed seeds,
and plant diseases from bio-solids. On Warren Wilson campus we compost
the cafeteria waste by first putting the waste through the green drum
bio-digester and then allowing the compost to finish in piles. An
outside contractor has occasionally reported high numbers of fecal
coliform bacteria when testing the compost; this inspired a further
investigation of the coliform (E. coli) profile of the cafeteria waste
compost piles over the course of the piles’ heating and curing periods.
During the summer and fall of 2007 temperature data was taken every day
in 3 compost piles. Coliform counts were also made for each of
the 3 piles every 2 weeks using MacConkey plates to enumerate the
coliforms. The first pile was observed between July 10 and November 10
and began the sampling period with no E. coli present. E. coli
however eventually appeared in plate counts on day 52, rising above the
EPA regulatory ceiling for the presence of coliforms in bio-solids. The
second pile was observed between August 29 and November 10. E.
coli was not present at the beginning or at the end of the sampling
period but emerged and then disappeared during the sampling
period. The third pile was observed between September 6 and
November 15 and remained free of E. coli throughout the sampling
period. In each of the piles, the coliform counts showed dramatic
variability between samples, sub-samples, and dilutions making it
difficult to apply these numbers to an EPA standard. This study
highlights the need for new methods in assessing the presence of
pathogens in compost.
James Tyson
December 3, 2007
The Habituation of
Mimosa pudica
Mentor: Dr. Jeff Holmes
Abstract: Mimosa pudica, also referred to as
the Sensitive Plant or Touch-Me-Not, exhibits a form of movement known
as seismonastic movement. This movement is a response to stimuli
independent of the stimuli direction. Possible stimuli include the
shock of touching, shaking, heating, exposure to electricity, etc… The
process through which M. pudica
moves is very similar to the functional process of a nerve cell.
Habituation is the decrease of behavioral response from repeated
stimulation with a stimulus that is neither harmful nor beneficial.
Several researchers have determined that M. pudica can habituate in the
short and long term. The objective of this study was to confirm if M. pudica would habituate in the
short and long term given a set of controls, and if the plant, given a
period of habituation, would continue to habituate at a similar rate
after a periodic break in habituation. The data collected showed a
general decreasing trend in habituation times for all of four groups in
two different studies. This suggested that, although M. pudica habituated in the short
term, it did not appear to habituate in the long term or after a break
in habituation which suggests that the plant was not learning or
remembering.
Morgan M
Williams
December 3rd 2007
An Ethnographic
Survey of The Ceremonial Plant and Animal Use of The Elang’ata-Dapash
Maasai. Longido District, Northern Tanzania.
Mentor: Dr. Michael Torres
Abstract: Human population
pressures, alternative land use strategies, and the recent movement of
Christianity into East Africa have resulted in great changes to the
social customs of the Maasai. Given that a limited number of
historical records on the Maasai in Northern Tanzania exist, this study
will serve to document the currently practiced non-Christian ceremonies
of the Elang’ata-Dapash Maasai so that future studies may have
something to compare against. Special emphasis was given to the
plant and animal resources required for each ceremony. From April
11th to April 30th 2007, interviews were conducted with 45 males in the
arpayan and ngakuyaa age classes, along with three of the four oloiboni
(spiritual leaders) from the community. A detailed description of
each non-Christian ceremony was documented, and an ethnobotanical
collection of relevant plants was performed. The information
received from the most socially prominent key-informant was given more
emphasis if there were significant inconsistencies in the
findings. The ethnographic survey determined that 18
non-Christian ceremonies were currently being practiced, utilizing a
total of 36 individual plant species (4 herbs, 3 bushes, 22 trees, 2
grasses, 2 vines, and 3 unknown) and 21 animal products (11 cow, 6
sheep, 1 goat, 3 undomesticated). The most commonly used resources were
Calabash (Lagenaria siceraria),
Emurwa (Cynodon dactylon),
Engaiteteyai (Commelina benghalensis),
and cow milk from Bos primigenius
indicus, each being required for all 18 ceremonies.
Hilary
Collins
December 10, 2007
Bird Diversity in
San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park
Mentor: Dr. Bob Eckstein
Abstract: Bird diversity
and abundance may be adversely affected by urbanization. A large
urban park, like the Golden Gate Park, could provide habitat for birds
within a city, which lacks natural habitat. Several varying
factors including proximity to water, proximity to busy roads, and
human sound were measured in the Golden Gate Park to determine whether
they influenced bird abundance and species diversity. To collect
data, six areas or transects (areas with a defined width and length)
were visited in the park six times. When the average number of
birds was compared between transects, transects were found to
statically differ from each other (p < 0.000). Overall, no
significant differences were found between factors, except proximity to
busy roads. The average number of species significantly differed
in areas of low and high traffic (p = 0.035). Factors may have
had more influence on bird diversity and abundance when combined than
when separated. The small sample size may also have been a reason
for no significant difference between factors. Bird
diversity could possibly be improved within the park if high traffic
was limited in the interior areas of the park.